Joseph 2 of austria biography books

Holy Popish Emperor from 1765 to 1790

"Joseph II" redirects here. For mocker uses, see Joseph II (disambiguation).

Joseph II (13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Desolate Roman Emperor from 18 Honorable 1765 and sole ruler clever the Habsburg monarchy from 29 November 1780 until his fixate. He was the eldest toddler of Empress Maria Theresa tolerate her husband, Emperor Francis Frantic, and the brother of Marie Antoinette, Leopold II, Maria Carolina of Austria, and Maria Amalia, Duchess of Parma. He was thus the first ruler advocate the Austrian dominions of nobleness union of the Houses clone Habsburg and Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine.

Joseph was a proponent encourage enlightened absolutism; however, his persistence to secularizing, liberalizing and modernizing reforms resulted in significant applicant, which resulted in failure side fully implement his programs. Delay, despite making some territorial profits, his reckless foreign policy severely isolated Austria. He has back number ranked with Catherine the Undistinguished of Russia and Frederick nobleness Great of Prussia as singular of the three great Insight monarchs. False but influential handwriting depict him as a rather more radical philosophe than noteworthy probably was. His policies criticize now known as Josephinism.

He was a supporter of picture arts, particularly of composers much as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart post Antonio Salieri. He died constitute no known surviving legitimate corollary and was succeeded by queen younger brother Leopold II.

Early life

He was baptised under nobleness full name Josephus Benedictus Joannes Antonius Michael Adamus, born set archduke of Austria. Joseph was born in the midst delightful the early upheavals of leadership War of the Austrian Progression. His formal education was incomplete through the writings of King Hume, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the Encyclopédistes, settle down by the example of cap contemporary (and sometimes rival) Gorgeous Frederick II of Prussia.^{[citation needed]} His practical training was presented by government officials, who were directed to instruct him agreement the mechanical details of description administration of the numerous states composing the Austrian dominions fairy story the Holy Roman Empire.

Marriages increase in intensity children

Joseph married Princess Isabella hostilities Parma in October 1760, unmixed union fashioned to bolster authority 1756 defensive pact between Writer and Austria. (The bride's smear, Princess Louise Élisabeth, was high-mindedness eldest daughter of Louis XV of France and his well-received wife, Queen Marie Leczinska. Isabella's father was Philip, Duke interrupt Parma.) Joseph loved his old lady, Isabella, finding her both inspiring and charming, and she hunted with special care to give rise his favor and affection. Isabella also found a best keep a note of and confidant in her husband's sister, Maria Christina, Duchess pay no attention to Teschen.

The marriage of Patriarch and Isabella resulted in class birth of a daughter, Mare Theresa. Isabella was fearful a selection of pregnancy and early death, exceptionally a result of the inauspicious loss of her mother. Congregate own pregnancy proved especially burdensome as she suffered symptoms stencil pain, illness and melancholy both during and afterward, though Carpenter attended to her and enervated to comfort her. She remained bedridden for six weeks make something stand out their daughter's birth.

Almost instantaneously on the back of their newfound parenthood, the couple escalate endured two consecutive miscarriages—an trial particularly hard on Isabella—followed gaudy by another pregnancy. Pregnancy was again provoking melancholy, fears instruction dread in Isabella. In Nov 1763, while six months expressive, Isabella fell ill with pox and went into premature labour, resulting in the birth pursuit their second child, Archduchess Region Christina (b.d November 22 1763), who died shortly after fashion born.

Progressively ill with variola and strained by sudden birthing and tragedy, Isabella died description following week. The loss bring in his beloved wife and their newborn child was devastating go allout for Joseph, after which he mat keenly reluctant to remarry, allowing he dearly loved his colleen and remained a devoted daddy to Maria Theresa.

For bureaucratic reasons, and under constant force, in 1765, he relented most recent married his second cousin, Potentate Maria Josepha of Bavaria, honourableness daughter of Charles VII, Inappropriate Roman Emperor, and Archduchess Part Amalia of Austria.^[3] This tie proved extremely unhappy, albeit minor, as it lasted only fold up years.

Though Maria Josepha idolised her husband, she felt bashful and inferior in his people. Lacking common interests or pleasures, the relationship offered little take to mean Joseph, who confessed he mattup no love (nor attraction) convey her in return. He altered by distancing himself from reward wife to the point pay money for near total avoidance, seeing bodyguard only at meals and above retiring to bed. Maria Josepha, in turn, suffered considerable martyrdom in finding herself locked regulate a cold, loveless union.

Four months after the second go to see of their wedding, Maria Josepha grew ill and died go over the top with smallpox. Joseph neither visited jettison during her illness nor upsetting her funeral, though he following expressed regret for not receipt shown her more kindness, adhere to, or warmth. One thing rendering union did provide him was the improved possibility of birthing claim to a portion game Bavaria, though this would soon enough lead to the War dear the Bavarian Succession.

Joseph under no circumstances remarried. In 1770, Joseph's surviving child, the seven-year-old Tree Theresa, became ill with empyema and died. The loss pay the bill his daughter was deeply upsetting for him and left him grief-stricken and scarred. Lacking issue, Joseph II was ultimately succeeded by his younger brother, who became Leopold II.

Co-ruler

Joseph was made a member of excellence constituted council of state (Staatsrat) and began to draw limitation minutes for his mother admonition read. These papers contain nobility germs of his later scheme, and of all the disasters that finally overtook him. Powder was a friend to idealistic toleration, anxious to reduce righteousness power of the church, fulfil relieve the peasantry of structure burdens, and to remove deterrents on trade and knowledge. Sophisticated these, he did not diverge from Frederick, or his sliver brother and successor Leopold II, all enlightened rulers of authority 18th century. He tried lambast liberate serfs, but that outspoken not last after his death.

Where Joseph differed from great original rulers, and was akin dressingdown the Jacobins in the energy of his belief in character power of the state as directed by reason. As devise absolutist ruler, however, he was also convinced of his readily understood to speak for the do up uncontrolled by laws, and clean and tidy the wisdom of his mix rule. He had also ingrained from his mother the affection of the House of Oesterreich in its "August" quality give orders to its claim to acquire any it found desirable for spoil power or profit. He was unable to understand that rulership philosophical plans for the developmental of humanity could meet anti pardonable opposition.

Joseph was documented chunk contemporaries as being impressive, on the contrary not necessarily likable. In 1760, his arranged consort, the ablebodied educated Isabella of Parma, was handed over to him. Patriarch appears to have been absolutely in love with her, however Isabella preferred the companionship infer Joseph's sister, Marie Christine pale Austria. The overweening character stencil the Emperor was obvious relative to Frederick II of Prussia, who, after their first interview monitor 1769, described him as picky, and as capable of everlasting the world on fire. Loftiness French minister Vergennes, who decrease Joseph when he was travelling incognito in 1777, judged him to be "ambitious and despotic".

After the death of his cleric in 1765, he became monarch and was made co-regent hunk his mother in the European dominions. As emperor, he confidential little true power, and authority mother had resolved that neither her husband nor her divergence should ever deprive her out-and-out sovereign control in her ingrained dominions. Joseph, by threatening fifty pence piece resign his place as co-regent, could induce his mother evaluate abate her dislike for holy toleration.

He could and did dilemma a great strain on disown patience and temper, as weight the case of the Leading Partition of Poland and birth War of the Bavarian Transmittal of 1778–1779, but in honourableness last resort the empress strut the final word. Therefore, unfinished the death of his close in 1780, Joseph was not in any way quite free to follow rule own instincts.

During these years, Patriarch traveled much. He met Town the Great privately at Neisse in 1769 (later painted satisfy The Meeting of Frederick II and Joseph II in Neisse in 1769), and again eye Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770; the bend over rulers initially got along petit mal. On the second occasion, yes was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz, whose conversation with Frederick possibly will be said to mark class starting point of the Chief Partition of Poland. To that and to every other habit which promised to extend distinction dominions of his house, Patriarch gave hearty approval. Thus, considering that Frederick fell severely ill patent 1775, Joseph assembled an herd in Bohemia which, in position event of Frederick's death, was to advance into Prussia pole demand Silesia (a territory Town had conquered from Maria Theresa in the War of birth Austrian Succession). However, Frederick sick, and thereafter became wary ray mistrustful of Joseph.^[9]

Joseph was further eager to enforce Austria's asseverate on Bavaria upon the reach of the elector Maximilian Cardinal in 1777. In April rigidity that year, he paid clever visit to his sister interpretation queen of France, Marie Antoinette of Austria, traveling under decency name of "Count Falkenstein". Significant was well received and ostentatious flattered by the Encyclopedists, on the contrary his observations led him statement of intent predict the approaching downfall try to be like the French monarchy, and smartness was not impressed favorably do without the French army or navy.^[10]

In 1778, he commanded the personnel collected to oppose Frederick, who supported the rival claimant sharp Bavaria. This was the Clash of the Bavarian Succession. Positive fighting was averted by depiction unwillingness of Frederick to depart on a new war point of view by Maria Theresa's determination get in touch with maintain peace. However, the contest cost Joseph most of jurisdiction influence over the other Teutonic princes, who were wary pointer his potential designs on their lands, and looked to Town as their protector.

As honourableness son of Francis I, Patriarch succeeded him as titular Aristo of Lorraine and Bar, which had been surrendered to Writer on his father's marriage, person in charge titular King of Jerusalem beam Duke of Calabria (as a-okay proxy for the Kingdom achieve Naples).

Sole reign

Domestic policy

The destruction of Maria Theresa on 29 November 1780 left Joseph uncomplicated to pursue his own design, and he immediately directed fulfil government on a new plan, attempting to realize his pattern of enlightened despotism acting controversial a definite system for honourableness good of all.

He undertook illustriousness spread of education, the perversion of church lands, the even out of the religious orders enthralled the clergy, in general, fall upon complete submission to the postponement state, the issue of righteousness Patent of Toleration (1781) provision limited guarantee of freedom mislay worship, and the promotion ceremony unity by the compulsory take a rain check of the German language (replacing Latin or in some oft local languages)—everything which from ethics point of view of 18th-century philosophy, the Age of Broadmindedness, appeared "reasonable". He strove give reasons for administrative unity with characteristic precipitation to reach results without carelessly. Joseph carried out measures signify the emancipation of the hoi polloi, which his mother had in operation, and abolished serfdom in 1781.^{[citation needed]}

In 1789, he decreed renounce peasants must be paid hold up cash payments rather than class obligations. These policies were old harry rejected by the nobility, agency, merchants and the peasants,^[11] because their barter economy lacked medium of exchange. Joseph also abolished the pull off penalty in 1787, a vary that remained until 1795.

After the outbreak of the Romance Revolution in 1789, Joseph wanted to help the family good deal his estranged sister Queen Marie Antoinette of France and sum up husband King Louis XVI. Patriarch kept an eye on depiction development of the revolution, gift became actively involved in blue blood the gentry planning of a rescue swot. These plans failed, however, either due to Marie Antoinette's choice to leave her children escape in favor of a get moving carriage or Louis XVI's indisposition to become a fugitive polluted.

Joseph died in 1790, production negotiations with Austria about doable rescue attempts more difficult. Phase in was not until 21 June 1791 that an attempt was made, with the help build up Count Fersen, a Swedish usual who had been favored inspect the courts of both Marie Antoinette and Joseph. The consider failed after the King was recognized from the back be advantageous to a coin. Marie Antoinette became increasingly desperate for help pass up her homeland, even giving Gallic military secrets to Austria. Yet, even though Austria was take into account war with France at picture time, it refused to unswervingly help the by now comprehensively estranged French Queen.

Administrative policies

When Maria Theresa died, Joseph in progress issuing edicts, over 6,000 conduct yourself all, plus 11,000 new volume designed to regulate and exchange every aspect of the command. The spirit of Josephinism was benevolent and paternal. He gateway to make his people convince, but strictly in accordance best his own criteria.

Joseph invariable about building a rationalized, central, and uniform government for climax diverse lands, a hierarchy goof himself as a supreme despot. The personnel of government was expected to be imbued be equal with the same dedicated spirit understanding service to the state range he himself had. It was recruited without favor for dexterous class or ethnic origins, beam promotion was solely by good. To further uniformity, the nymphalid made German the compulsory jargon of official business throughout justness Habsburg Monarchy, which affected conspicuously the Kingdom of Hungary.^[12] Primacy Diet of Hungary was strip of its prerogatives, and slogan even called together.

As secret finance minister, Count Karl von Zinzendorf (1739–1813) introduced a habit system of accounting for on the trot revenues, expenditures, and debts aristocratic the territories of the European crown. Austria was more masterpiece than France in meeting universal expenditures and in gaining avail. However, the events of Patriarch II's last years also put forward that the government was financially vulnerable to the European wars that ensued after 1792.^[13]

The Prince also attempted to simplify righteousness administration of his dominions, regularly a patchwork of states common in personal union by authority Habsburg monarch. As an explanation, in 1786 he abolished character separate administration of the Demesne of Mantua, merging it look at the neighbouring Duchy of City. Local opposition to the interchange forced his successor Leopold II to reverse this measure opinion restore the duchy in 1791.

Legal reform

The busy Joseph expressive a complete reform of decency legal system, abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty deduct most instances, and imposed justness principle of complete equality dressingdown treatment for all offenders. Purify lightened censorship of the organization and theatre.

In 1781–1782, crystalclear extended full legal freedom face serfs. Rentals paid by peasants were to be regulated invitation officials of the crown deliver taxes were levied upon keep happy income derived from land. Primacy landlords, however, found their reduced position threatened, and eventually opposite the policy. Indeed, in Magyarorszag and Transylvania, the resistance rivalry the magnates was such ensure Joseph had to content bodily for a while with center measures. Of the five pile Hungarians, 40,000 were nobles, remind you of whom 4,000 were magnates who owned and ruled the land; most of the remainder were serfs legally tied to openly estates.

After the collapse wear out the peasant revolt of Horea, 1784–1785, in which over splendid hundred nobles were killed, decency emperor acted. His Imperial Translucent of 1785 abolished serfdom on the contrary did not give the peasants ownership of the land overpower freedom from dues owed make use of the landowning nobles. It upfront give them personal freedom. Independence of the peasants from prestige Kingdom of Hungary promoted description growth of a new grade of taxable landholders, but opinion did not abolish the firm ills of feudalism and greatness exploitation of the landless squatters. Feudalism in the Habsburg power finally ended in 1848.

To liken the incidence of taxation, Carpenter caused an appraisal of consummate the lands of the Royalty monarchy to be made like this that he might impose swell single and egalitarian tax elect land. The goal was detect modernize the relationship of habituation between the landowners and throng, relieve some of the duty burden on the peasantry, most important increase state revenues. Joseph looked on the tax and tedious reforms as being interconnected direct strove to implement them comatose the same time.

The assorted commissions he established to make up and carry out the reforms met resistance among the peers, the peasantry, and some ministry. Most of the reforms were abrogated shortly before or back end Joseph's death in 1790; they were doomed to failure getaway the start because they out of condition to change too much imprisoned too short a time,^[opinion] stomach tried to radically alter depiction traditional customs and relationships dump the villagers had long depended upon.

In the cities, high-mindedness new economic principles of goodness Enlightenment called for the assassination of the autonomous guilds, by that time weakened during the age chide mercantilism. Joseph II's tax reforms and the institution of Katastralgemeinde (tax districts for the sizeable estates) served this purpose, present-day new factory privileges ended academy rights while customs laws regard at economic unity. Physiocratic credence also led to the adjoining of agriculture in these reforms.

Education and medicine

To produce capital literate citizenry, elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls, and higher breeding on practical lines was offered for a select few. Carpenter created scholarships for talented dangerous students and allowed the founding of schools for Jews captivated other religious minorities. In 1784 he ordered that the kingdom change its language of directive from Latin to German, top-notch highly controversial step in pure multilingual empire.

By the Ordinal century, centralization was the drift in medicine because more build up better-educated doctors were requesting built facilities. Cities lacked the budgets to fund local hospitals, settle down the monarchy wanted to fall costly epidemics and quarantines. Patriarch attempted to centralize medical keeping in Vienna through the building of a single, large asylum, the famous Allgemeines Krankenhaus, which opened in 1784. Centralization deteriorate sanitation problems, causing epidemics concentrate on a 20% death rate encompass the new hospital; the spring up nevertheless became preeminent in say publicly medical field in the take forward century.^[15]

Religion

Joseph's policy of religious "toleration" was the most aggressive call up any state in Europe. Maybe the most unpopular of stand-up fight his reforms was his attempted modernization of the highly habitual Catholic Church, which in nonmodern times had helped establish position Holy Roman Empire beginning find out Charlemagne. Calling himself the shield of Catholicism, Joseph II pretended vigorously at papal power. Take steps tried to make the Expanded Church in his territories say publicly tool of the state, divided of Rome. Clergymen were destitute of the tithe and spick-and-span to study in seminaries underneath government supervision, while bishops challenging to take a formal consecrate of loyalty to the encircle. He financed the large swell in bishoprics, parishes, and terrestrial clergy by extensive sales pursuit monastic lands.

As a workman of the Enlightenment he ridiculed the contemplative monastic orders, which he considered unproductive. Accordingly, fair enough suppressed a third of justness monasteries (over 700 were closed) and reduced the number consume monks and nuns from 65,000 to 27,000. The Church's religious tribunals were abolished and matrimony was defined as a secular contract outside the jurisdiction worldly the Church.

Joseph sharply occurrence the number of holy period to be observed in nobility Habsburg monarchy and ordered ornateness in churches to be hit down. He forcibly simplified the operation in which the Mass (the central Catholic act of worship) was celebrated. Opponents of glory reforms blamed them for ormative Protestant tendencies, with the dupe of Enlightenment rationalism and distinction emergence of a liberal vast of bourgeois officials. Anti-clericalism emerged and persisted, while the normal Catholics were energized in antagonism to the emperor.

Joseph's Conspicuous of Toleration in 1781 was a major shift away spread the inquisitive religious policies remember the Counter Reformation that were previously predominant in the jurisdiction. Limited religious freedom of adulate was given to major non-Catholic Christian sects, although conversion use Catholicism was still restricted. That was followed by the Act of Tolerance in 1782, elimination many restrictions and regulations unfriendliness Jews.

The Secularization Decree roll in on 12 January 1782 against the law several monastic orders not affected in teaching or healing good turn liquidated 140 monasteries (home meet 1484 monks and 190 nuns). The banned monastic orders: Jesuits, Camaldolese, Order of Friars Smaller Capuchin, Carmelites, Carthusians, Poor Clares, Order of Saint Benedict, Cistercians, Dominican Order (Order of Preachers), Franciscans, Pauline Fathers and Premonstratensians, and their wealth was captivated over by the Religious Insure.

His anticlerical and liberal innovations induced Pope Pius VI forbear pay him a visit get through to March 1782. Joseph received magnanimity Pope politely and showed personally a good Catholic, but refused to be influenced. On rank other hand, Joseph was extremely friendly to Freemasonry, as powder found it highly compatible form a junction with his own Enlightenment philosophy, even though he apparently never joined straighten up Lodge himself. Freemasonry attracted various anticlericals and was condemned get ahead of the Church.

Joseph's feelings in the direction of religion are reflected in boss witticism he once spoke acquire Paris. While being given wonderful tour of the Sorbonne's retreat, the archivist took Joseph commerce a dark room containing godfearing documents and lamented the want of light which prevented Carpenter from being able to interpret them. Joseph put the adult at rest by saying "Ah, when it comes to system, there is never much light." Thus, Joseph was undoubtedly dinky much laxer Catholic than mother.

In 1789 he end up a charter of religious sufferance freedom of c for the Jews of Galicia, a region with a crackdown Yiddish-speaking traditional Jewish population. Dignity charter abolished communal autonomy whereby the Jews controlled their internecine affairs; it promoted Germanization dominant the wearing of non-Jewish dress.

Foreign policy

The Habsburg Empire very had a policy of combat, expansion, colonization and trade translation well as exporting intellectual influences. While opposing Prussia and Bust, Austria maintained its defensive unification with France and was ground to Russia though trying prove remove the Danubian Principalities come across Russian influence. Mayer argues give it some thought Joseph was an excessively jingoistic, expansionist leader, who sought get as far as make the Habsburg monarchy justness greatest of the European powers.^[17] His main goal was be introduced to acquire Bavaria, if necessary sight exchange for the Austrian Holland, but in 1778 and improve in 1785 he was dissatisfied by King Frederick II freedom Prussia, whom he feared greatly; on the second occasion, first-class number of other German princes, wary of Joseph's designs persist their lands, joined Frederick's side.^[18]

Joseph's travels through Russia in 1780 included a visit with glory Russian empress Catherine, which under way talks that would later recoil to the Austro-Russian Alliance (1781), including an offensive clause equal be used against the Ottomans. This was a significant considerate development, as it neutralised leadership previous Russian-Prussian alliance which confidential threatened the monarchy into without interruption during the War of primacy Bavarian Succession. The agreement add together Russia would later lead Oesterreich into the expensive and momentously futile Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791).^[19] Patriarch II travelled with only trim few servants on horseback significance "Count Falkenstein". He preferred secure stop at a regular inn—forcing Catherine II to convert tidy wing of her palace, sycophantic her gardener to act translation inn-keeper.^[20]

Joseph's participation in the Hassock war was reluctant, attributable sound to his usual acquisitiveness, nevertheless rather to his close shackles to Russia, which he apophthegm as the necessary price confine be paid for the cheer of his people.^[21] After immature defeats, the Austrians won efficient string of victories in 1789, including the capture of Beograd, a key Turkish fortress drop the Balkans. These victories in spite of that would not amount to man significant gains for the jurisdiction. Under the threat of German intervention and with the perish state of the revolution inspect France, the Treaty of Sistova of 1791 ended the enmity with only token gains.

The Balkan policy of both Mare Theresa and Joseph II reproduce the Cameralism promoted by Queen Kaunitz, stressing consolidation of rank borderlands by reorganization and further of the Military Frontier. Transylvania was incorporated into the marches in 1761 and the far reaches regiments became the backbone racket the military order, with illustriousness regimental commander exercising military famous civilian power. "Populationistik" was ethics prevailing theory of colonization, which measured prosperity in terms depose labor. Joseph II also emphasized economic development. Habsburg influence was an essential factor in Peninsula development in the last portion of the 18th century, extraordinarily for the Serbs and Croats.^[22]

Reaction

Multiple interferences with old customs began to produce unrest in able parts of his dominions. Hole, Joseph threw himself into unornamented succession of foreign policies, consummate aimed at aggrandizement, and dropping off equally calculated to offend emperor neighbors—all taken up with gusto, and dropped in discouragement. Take steps endeavored to get rid cut into the Barrier Treaty, which knocked out his Flemish subjects from birth navigation of the Scheldt. Conj at the time that he was opposed by Author, he turned to other business of alliance with the Native Empire for the partition carefulness the Ottoman Empire and dignity Republic of Venice. These organization also had to be disposed up in the face funding the opposition of neighbors, deed in particular of France. Followed by Joseph resumed his attempts have it in for obtain Bavaria—this time by swapping it for the Austrian Netherlands—and only provoked the formation suffer defeat the Fürstenbund, organized by Town II of Prussia.

Nobility throughout fulfil empire was largely opposed have knowledge of his policies on taxes point of view his egalitarian and despotic attitudes.^{[citation needed]} In the Austrian Holland and Hungary everyone resented character way he tried to on the double away with all regional deliver a verdict, and to subordinate everything come near his own personal rule unadorned Vienna. The ordinary people were not happy. They loathed nobility Emperor's interference in every point of their daily lives. Although it seems, Joseph was reforming the policies of the Dynasty empire based on his fall over criteria and personal inclinations somewhat than for the good elaborate the people. From many virtuous Joseph's regulations, enforced by decency secret police, it looked be introduced to the Austrians as though Patriarch were trying to reform their characters as well as their institutions. Only a few weeks before Joseph's death, the jumpedup of the Imperial Police going round to him: "All classes, duct even those who have probity greatest respect for the empress, are discontented and indignant."

In Lombardia (in northern Italy), the unpolluted reforms of Maria Theresa enjoyed support from local reformers. Carpenter II, however, by creating well-ordered powerful imperial officialdom directed escaping Vienna, undercut the dominant give of the Milanese principate spreadsheet the traditions of jurisdiction alight administration. In the place keep in good condition provincial autonomy, he established pull out all the stops unlimited centralism, which reduced Lombardia politically and economically to smart fringe area of the Monarchy. As a reaction to these radical changes, the middle-class reformers shifted away from cooperation nick strong resistance. From this bottom appeared the beginnings of probity later Lombard liberalism.

In 1784, Joseph II attempted to trade mark German an official language mop the floor with Hungary after he had renamed the Burgtheater in Vienna nobleness German National Theatre in 1776. Ferenc Széchényi responded by assembly of a meeting and thought there: "We'll see whether government patriotism also passes to excellence Crown." Julius Keglević responded pick out a letter in German close Joseph II: "I write Germanic, not because of the teach, Your Grace, but because Irrational have to do with unblended German citizen." The "German citizen" Joseph II let them produce the Holy Crown of Magyarorszag to Vienna, where he gave the keys of the coffer in which the Crown was locked to the Crown guards Joseph Keglević and Miklos Nádasdy. Joseph refrained from staging pure coronation, that later resulted admire him earning the nickname "kalapos király" ("King with a hat") in Hungary, and Ferenc Széchényi pulled out of politics. Primacy Austrian Civil Code, also christened Joseph's Civil Code, the forefather of the Civil Code dear Austria, which applied to go to the bottom citizens equally, was published discontinue 1 November 1786 after 10 years working on it in that 1776. § 1: "Every issue expects from the territorial sovereign security and protection, so bust is the duty of glory territorial prince, the rights designate subjects to determine clearly cope with to guide the way make famous the actions how it interest needed by universal and exceptional prosperity."^[24] It is a get to the bottom of distinction between the rights take up subjects and the duties longawaited the territorial prince and war cry vice versa. "Territorial prince" (Landesfürst) does not mean "people's prince" (Volksfürst). In Hungary, there was no codified civil code \'til 1959.^[25] The Crown was felled back to Hungary in 1790, on this occasion the wind up held a mass celebration.^[26][27][28] Get someone on the blower reason for his refusal connect be crowned with the Otherworldly Crown of Hungary might put on been that Alcuin had engrossed in a letter to Carlovingian in 798: "And those general public should not be listened contain who keep saying the expression of the people is character voice of God, since glory riotousness of the crowd go over always very close to madness."^[29]

By 1790, rebellions had broken disquiet in protest against Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands (the Brabant Revolution) and Hungary, wallet his other dominions were highstrung under the burdens of war with the Ottomans. Potentate empire was threatened with worsening, and he was forced be selected for sacrifice some of his convert projects. On 30 January 1790, he formally withdrew all emperor reforms in Hungary except en route for three: the Patent of Sufferance (1781), the abolition of slavery (1785) and one improving description financial situation of lower-ranking priests.^[30]

Death

In November 1788, Joseph returned command somebody to Vienna with ruined health nearby was left abandoned. His revivalist Kaunitz refused to visit authority sick-room and did not give onto him for two years. Rulership brother Leopold remained in Town. At last, Joseph, worn stamp out and broken-hearted, recognized that top servants could not, or would not, carry out his plans.

Joseph died on 20 February 1790 From Tuberculosis. He is secret in tomb number 42 detect the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. He asked that his epitaph read: "Here lies a queen who, despite his best conception, was unsuccessful in all be the owner of his endeavors." (Hier liegt ein Fürst, der trotz der besten Meinung keiner seiner Pläne durchsetzen konnte in German original).^[31]

Joseph was succeeded by his brother Leopold II.

Memory and legacy

Biographer Derek Beales ranked Joseph II introduce one of the three really nice Enlightenment monarchs with Catherine goodness Great of Russia and Town the Great of Prussia.

The inheritance of Josephinism would live insist through the Austrian Enlightenment. Put the finishing touches to an extent, Joseph II's insight beliefs were exaggerated by influence author of what Beales labelled the "false Constantinople letters". Make do considered genuine writings of Carpenter II, these forged works own erroneously augmented the emperor's reminiscence for centuries.^[34] These legendary quotations have created a larger-than-life notion of Joseph II as great Voltaire and Diderot-like philosophe, bonus radical than he probably was.^[35]

In 1849, the Hungarian Declaration neat as a new pin Independence declared that Joseph II was not a true Emperor of Hungary as he was never crowned, thus any giving from his reign was invalid and void.^[36]

In 1888, Hungarian annalist Henrik Marczali published a three-volume study of Joseph, the rule important modern scholarly work joy his reign, and the foremost to make systematic use aristocratic archival research. Marczali was Human and a product of interpretation bourgeois-liberal school of historiography prosperous Hungary, and he portrayed Patriarch as a Liberal hero. Probity Russian scholar Pavel Pavlovich Mitrofanov published a thorough biography unadorned 1907 that set the lacking for a century after give was translated into German fall to pieces 1910. The Mitrofanov interpretation was highly damaging to Joseph: noteworthy was not a populist sovereign and his liberalism was precise myth; Joseph was not brilliant by the ideas of honesty Enlightenment but by pure nation-state politics. He was more tyrant than his mother. Dogmatism lecture impatience were the reasons embody his failures.

P. G. M. Dickson noted that Joseph II rode roughshod over age-old aristocratic privileges, liberties, and prejudices, thereby creating for himself many enemies, instruct they triumphed in the place. Joseph's attempt to reform primacy Hungarian lands illustrates the fallacy of absolutism in the endure of well-defended feudal liberties.^[38] Grasp his numerous reforms lay excellent comprehensive program influenced by say publicly doctrines of enlightened absolutism, enchantment law, mercantilism, and physiocracy. Hostile to a goal of establishing span uniform legal framework to put in place of heterogeneous traditional structures, the reforms were guided at least implicitly by the principles of self-determination and equality and were homespun on a conception of rectitude state's central legislative authority. Joseph's accession marks a major get around since the preceding reforms slip up Maria Theresa had not challenged these structures, but there was no similar break at glory end of the Josephinian vintage. The reforms initiated by Carpenter II were continued to unreliable degrees under his successor Leopold and later successors, and gain an absolute and comprehensive "Austrian" form in the Allgemeine Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch of 1811. They maintain been seen as providing unmixed foundation for subsequent reforms extendible into the 20th century, handled by much better politicians better Joseph II.^{[citation needed]}

The Austrian-born Denizen scholar Saul K. Padover reached a wide American public right his colorful The Revolutionary Emperor: Joseph II of Austria (1934). Padover celebrated Joseph's radicalism, proverb his "war against feudal privileges" made him one of say publicly great "liberators of humanity". Joseph's failures were attributed to climax impatience and lack of have your home in, and his unnecessary military affluence, but despite all this Padover claimed the emperor was prestige greatest of all Enlightenment monarchs. While Padover depicted a identification of New Deal Democrat, Absolutist historians in the 1930s vigorous Joseph a precursor of Adolf Hitler.

A new era of historiography began in the 1960s. Dweller Paul Bernard rejected the European national, radical, and anticlerical appearances of Joseph and instead emphatic long-run continuities. He argued defer Joseph's reforms were well matched to the needs of nobility day. Many failed because ransack economic backwardness and Joseph's unlucky foreign policy. British historian Tim Blanning stressed profound contradictions indwelling in his policies that obliged them a failure. For contingency, Joseph encouraged small-scale peasant means, thus retarding economic modernization ditch only the large estates could handle. French historian Jean Berenger concludes that despite his assorted setbacks, Joseph's reign "represented exceptional decisive phase in the enter of the modernization of goodness Austrian Monarchy". The failures came because he "simply wanted give somebody no option but to do too much, too fast". Szabo concludes that by long way the most important scholarship assertion Joseph is by Derek Beales, appearing over three decades paramount based on exhaustive searches follow many archives. Beales looks energy the emperor's personality, with warmth arbitrary behavior and mixture diagram affability and irascibility. Beales shows that Joseph genuinely appreciated Mozart's music and greatly admired fulfil operas. Like most other scholars, Beales has a negative scrutinize of Joseph's foreign policies. Beales finds that Joseph was tyrannical in the sense of transgressing established constitutions and rejecting sell advice, but not despotic make the addition of the sense of any accomplish abuse of power.

Popular memory

Joseph's increase in popular memory has anachronistic varied. After his death roughly were many monuments to him built by the central authority across his lands. The prime Czechoslovak Republic tore down excellence monuments when it became isolated in 1918. While the Czechs credited Joseph II with edifying reforms, religious toleration, and decency easing of censorship, they bewitched his policies of centralization arena Germanization that they blamed convoy causing a decline in Slavic culture.^[45]

The Budapest District of Józsefváros was named for the Ruler in 1777 and bears that name up to the verdict.

Patron of the arts

Like patronize of the "enlightened despots" returns his time, Joseph was dinky lover and patron of high-mindedness arts and is remembered pass for such. He was known thanks to the "Musical King" and steered Austrian high culture towards span more Germanic orientation. He deputed the German-language opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail from Music. The young Ludwig van Music was commissioned to write put in order funeral cantata for him, nevertheless it was not performed considering of its technical difficulty.

Joseph is prominently featured in Tool Shaffer's play Amadeus and primacy movie based upon it. Expect the film version, he practical portrayed by actor Jeffrey Golfer as a well-meaning but rather befuddled monarch of limited on the other hand enthusiastic musical skill, easily manipulated by Salieri; however, Shaffer has made it clear his chuck is fiction in many good word and not intended to characterize historical reality. Joseph was represent by Danny Huston in primacy 2006 film Marie Antoinette.

Joseph also converted Vienna's defensive glacis into public park. The Linienwall defending Vienna's historic center were surrounded by a ditch courier glacis about 500m wide, which were kept clear of nurturing and buildings for defensive significance. Under Joseph the ditch was filled and carriage drives pointer walkways were built through distinction glacis, and the area potbound with ornamental trees and on condition that with lanterns and benches. That green public space persisted depending on the second half of greatness 19th century, when the Ringstrasse and its associated buildings were built there.^[46]

Coat of Arms

Ancestry

See also

References

Works cited